Kühn, I., Brandl, R., & Klotz, S. (2004). The flora of German cities is naturally species rich. Evolutionary Ecology Research, 6(5), 749-764; Walters, S.M. (1970). The next twenty years. In The Flora of a Changing Britain (F. Perring, ed.), pp. 136–141. Hampton: Classey.
biodiversity-wealth
The socioeconomic status of urban residents is positively related to the biodiversity in their neighbourhoods.
Ann P. Kinzig; Paige Warren; Chris Martin; Diane Hope; Madhusudan Katti (2005). "The Effects of Human Socioeconomic Status and Cultural Characteristics on Urban Patterns of Biodiversity". Ecology and Society. 10 (1). doi:10.5751/ES-01264-100123. ISSN1708-3087. WikidataQ113689270.
cities as entry points
Cities are entry points for introduced non-native species.
Low variability in resource abundance and reduced predation allow higher population densities in urban areas through the persistence of many weak competitors who remain in poor body condition, who are less reproductively successful, and who would not otherwise survive.
Species richness declines within patches of remnant native habitat isolated within an urban matrix; habitat-dependent (such as ‘forest interior’) species are expected to suffer a progressive series of local extinctions over time.
Carla P. Catterall; Jarrad A. Cousin; Scott Piper; Gayle Johnson (12 May 2010). "Long-term dynamics of bird diversity in forest and suburb: decay, turnover or homogenization?". Diversity and Distributions. 16 (4): 559–570. doi:10.1111/J.1472-4642.2010.00665.X. ISSN1366-9516. WikidataQ56767210.
earlier phenology
Seasonal life cycles tend to start earlier in the urban core than in rural surroundings.
Roetzer T; Wittenzeller M; Haeckel H; Nekovar J (1 August 2000). "Phenology in central Europe--differences and trends of spring phenophases in urban and rural areas". International Journal of Biometeorology. 44 (2): 60–66. doi:10.1007/S004840000062. ISSN0020-7128. PMID10993559. WikidataQ39547402.
Urban habitats act as ecological traps and are preferred over other, higher quality habitats. Because urban habitats are low in quality for reproduction or survival and they may not sustain a population.
Epigenetic mechanisms can explain why some organisms are more successful in urban than non-urban areas.
Caroline Isaksson (11 June 2015). "Urbanization, oxidative stress and inflammation: a question of evolving, acclimatizing or coping with urban environmental stress". Functional Ecology. 29 (7): 913–923. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12477. ISSN0269-8463. WikidataQ115766648.
Food-web reshaping hypothesis (Q119137426): Urban food webs largely lack weak interactions, but the partly disassembled food webs retain a greater density of species interactions (e.g. greater connectance)
Urban food webs largely lack weak interactions, but the partly disassembled food webs retain a greater density of species interactions (e.g. greater connectance).
Erica Oberndorfer; Jeremy Lundholm; Brad Bass; et al. (16 November 2007). "Green Roofs as Urban Ecosystems: Ecological Structures, Functions, and Services". BioScience. 57 (10): 823–833. doi:10.1641/B571005. ISSN0006-3568. WikidataQ112773914.; Nicholas S. G. Williams; Jeremy Lundholm; J. Scott MacIvor (3 October 2014). "FORUM: Do green roofs help urban biodiversity conservation?". Journal of Applied Ecology. 51 (6): 1643–1649. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12333. ISSN0021-8901. WikidataQ115408794.
habitat diversity
Biodiversity in urban areas is high due to habitat diversity.
Pyšek, P. (1989). On the richness of Central European urban flora. Preslia 61(4), 329.
habitat isolation
More isolated habitat islands have lower species richness.
Robert MacArthur; Edward O. Wilson (1967), The Theory of Island Biogeography, Princeton University Press, WikidataQ7768659
herbivore proliferation
Herbivores may become hyperabundant in urban areas, sometimes leading to pest outbreaks.
A higher proportion of alien taxa in captivity and cultivation leads to an increased propagule pressure in cities.
Ingolf Kühn; Janis Wolf; Aline Schneider (17 October 2017). "Is there an urban effect in alien plant invasions?". Biological Invasions. 19 (12): 3505–3513. doi:10.1007/S10530-017-1591-1. ISSN1387-3547. WikidataQ56817029.; Fischer, J.D., Cleeton, S.H., Lyons, T.P. & Miller, J.R. (2012). Urbanization and the predation paradox: The role of trophic dynamics in structuring vertebrate communities. BioScience 62: 809-818.; Eötvös, C. B., Magura, T., & Lövei, G. L. (2018). A meta-analysis indicates reduced predation pressure with increasing urbanization. Landscape and Urban Planning 180: 54-59.
prey specialization
"The diet of carnivorous mesopredators will be increasingly dominated by a few species with urbanization. These prey species will be hyperabundant within cities. The predation rate on prey species that are not hyperabundant will decline with urbanization." (p. 816 in Fischer et al. 2012)
Jason D. Fischer; Sarah H. Cleeton; Timothy P. Lyons; James R. Miller (September 2012). "Urbanization and the Predation Paradox: The Role of Trophic Dynamics in Structuring Vertebrate Communities". BioScience. 62 (9): 809–818. doi:10.1525/BIO.2012.62.9.6. ISSN0006-3568. WikidataQ115514085.
rapid adaptation
Rates of evolutionary change are greater in urbanizing systems.
"Resilience in urban ecosystems is a function of the patterns of human activities and natural habitats that control and are controlled by both socio-economic and biophysical processes operating at various scales". (p. 242 in Alberti & Marzluff 2004)
Species richness is highest in sub-urban areas; it is lower in urban centers and the (rural) periphery.
Robert B. Blair (2001), Birds and Butterflies Along Urban Gradients in Two Ecoregions of the United States: Is Urbanization Creating a Homogeneous Fauna?, pp. 33–56, doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-1261-5_3, WikidataQ115766959
synanthropic species
The number of synanthropic species increases along the rural-urban gradient.
Klausnitzer, B. (1987). Ökologie der Großstadtfauna. Stuttgart, New York: Fischer. p 106; Adrien Guetté; Pierre Gaüzère; Vincent Devictor; Frédéric Jiguet; Laurent Godet (August 2017). "Measuring the synanthropy of species and communities to monitor the effects of urbanization on biodiversity". Ecological Indicators. 79: 139–154. doi:10.1016/J.ECOLIND.2017.04.018. ISSN1470-160X. WikidataQ115450533.
Cities are often located in areas of high biodiversity and urbanization is disproportionally higher in areas with high biodiversity.
Kühn, I., Brandl, R., & Klotz, S. (2004). The flora of German cities is naturally species rich. Evolutionary Ecology Research 6: 749-764.; Gary W Luck (1 November 2007). "A review of the relationships between human population density and biodiversity". Biological Reviews. 82 (4): 607–645. doi:10.1111/J.1469-185X.2007.00028.X. ISSN1464-7931. PMID17944620. WikidataQ36974785.; Christopher D. Ives; Pia E. Lentini; Caragh G. Threlfall; et al. (7 December 2015). "Cities are hotspots for threatened species". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 25 (1): 117–126. doi:10.1111/GEB.12404. ISSN1466-8238. WikidataQ56674888.
Species composition of different cities will become more and more similar as urbanization increases.
Blair, R. B. (2001). Birds and butterflies along urban gradients in two ecoregions of the United States: is urbanization creating a homogeneous fauna? Biotic Homogenization (eds J.L. Lockwood & M.L. McKinney), pp. 33-56. Springer, Boston, MA.; Michael L. McKinney (January 2006). "Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization". Biological Conservation. 127 (3): 247–260. doi:10.1016/J.BIOCON.2005.09.005. ISSN0006-3207. WikidataQ56781794.; Peter M Groffman; Jeannine Cavender-Bares; Neil D Bettez; et al. (February 2014). "Ecological homogenization of urban USA". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 12 (1): 74–81. doi:10.1890/120374. ISSN1540-9295. WikidataQ57068924.
urban core herbivore decline
The abundance of alien plants in the urban core tends to reduce the richness and abundance of native herbivore insects incapable of using non-native plants.
Diversity typically increases as the number of individuals increase in biological communities. Urban environments, however, tend to be characterized by lower biodiversity than wildlands despite high population densities.
Eyal Shochat; Susannah B. Lerman; John M. Anderies; Paige S. Warren; Stanley H. Faeth; Charles H. Nilon (March 2010). "Invasion, Competition, and Biodiversity Loss in Urban Ecosystems". BioScience. 60 (3): 199–208. doi:10.1525/BIO.2010.60.3.6. ISSN0006-3568. WikidataQ56768361.; Susanna Saari; Scott Richter; Michael Higgins; Martina Oberhofer; Andrew Jennings; Stanley H. Faeth (10 March 2016). "Urbanization is not associated with increased abundance or decreased richness of terrestrial animals - dissecting the literature through meta-analysis". Urban Ecosystems. 19 (3): 1251–1264. doi:10.1007/S11252-016-0549-X. ISSN1083-8155. WikidataQ115467443.
"Through urbanization, humans mediate the interactions and feedback between evolution and ecology in subtle ways by introducing changes in habitat, biotic interactions, heterogeneity, novel disturbance, and social interactions." (p. 116 in Alberti 2015)
All ecosystems types respond to urban land use in a convergent manner (in other words: urban ecosystems are convergent regardless of the original ecosystem they replaced).
Pouyat R. V., Russell-Anelli, J., Yesilonis, I. D. & Groffman, P. M. (2003). Soil carbon in urban forest ecosystems. In The Potential of U.S. Forest Soils to Sequester Carbon and Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect. Kimble J. M., L. S. Heath, R. A. Birdsey, and R. Lal (eds.) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. (p. 358)
urban ecosystems as source of innovation
"The hybrid nature of urban ecosystems – resulting from co-evolving human and natural systems – is a source of ‘innovation’ in eco-evolutionary processes. " (p. 117 in Alberti 2015)
Urbanization [ specifically the fragmentation of habitats] leads to a loss of genetic variation within and increased differentiation between populations.
Lindsay S Miles; L Ruth Rivkin; Marc T J Johnson; Jason Munshi-South; Brian C Verrelli (24 September 2019). "Gene flow and genetic drift in urban environments". Molecular Ecology. 28 (18): 4138–4151. doi:10.1111/MEC.15221. ISSN0962-1083. PMID31482608. WikidataQ93091586.
urban habitat analogues
Native species can switch to urban habitats.
M. Rikli (1903). "Die Anthropochoren und der Formenkreis des Nasturtium palustre DC". Berichte der Schweizerischen Botanischen Gesellschaft (in German). 13: 71–102. doi:10.5169/SEALS-13224. ISSN0366-3094. WikidataQ105644583.; Linkola, K. (1916). Studien über den einfluss der Kultur auf die Flora in den gegenden nördlich vom Ladogasee. I Allgemeiner Teil. Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica 45: 1-429.; Thellung, A. (1919). Zur Terminologie der Adventiv-und Ruderalfloristik. Allgemeine Botanische Zeitschrift 24: 36-42.; Jeremy T. Lundholm; Paul J. Richardson (5 August 2010). "MINI-REVIEW: Habitat analogues for reconciliation ecology in urban and industrial environments". Journal of Applied Ecology. 47 (5): 966–975. doi:10.1111/J.1365-2664.2010.01857.X. ISSN0021-8901. WikidataQ112798276.
urban mesopredator release
"The abundance of large-bodied predators will decline with urbanization, whereas the abundance of mesopredators will increase." (p. 816 in Fischer et al. 2012)
Kevin R. Crooks; Michael E. Soulé (August 1999). "Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system". Nature. 400 (6744): 563–566. doi:10.1038/23028. ISSN1476-4687. WikidataQ56040736.; Jason D. Fischer; Sarah H. Cleeton; Timothy P. Lyons; James R. Miller (September 2012). "Urbanization and the Predation Paradox: The Role of Trophic Dynamics in Structuring Vertebrate Communities". BioScience. 62 (9): 809–818. doi:10.1525/BIO.2012.62.9.6. ISSN0006-3568. WikidataQ115514085.
urban sexual traits
In urban environments, species show shifts in several traits related to sexual selection (particularly in their coloration, acoustic signals including songs and calls, hormones, pheromones, mating behaviour).
Urbanization leads to a reduction in ecosystem functions and services.
Nancy B Grimm; Stanley H Faeth; Nancy E Golubiewski; Charles L Redman; Jianguo Wu; Xuemei Bai; John M Briggs (1 February 2008). "Global change and the ecology of cities". Science. 319 (5864): 756–760. doi:10.1126/SCIENCE.1150195. ISSN0036-8075. PMID18258902. WikidataQ33318748.
urbanization tolerance
Biodiversity loss in cities is largely caused by a low tolerance of species to urbanization.
Daniel Sol; Cesar González-Lagos; Darío Moreira; Joan Maspons; Oriol Lapiedra (19 May 2014). "Urbanisation tolerance and the loss of avian diversity". Ecology Letters. 17 (8): 942–950. doi:10.1111/ELE.12297. ISSN1461-023X. PMID24835452. WikidataQ46893506.
A principle "can be a concept, a definition used to translate concepts to specific cases, a definition of a quantitative convention wihin a model, a confirmed empirical generalization or a law" (Pickett & Cadenasso, 2017)[1]
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